Transport links into the PDNP

Overall vulnerability

Features assessed:

• Transport links into the PDNP
• Transport routes
• Direct access routes from urban surroundings

Special qualities:

• Undeveloped places of tranquillity and dark night skies within reach of millions
• Characteristic settlements with strong communities and traditions
• An inspiring space for escape, adventure, discovery and quiet reflection
• Vital benefits for millions of people that flow beyond the landscape

Feature description:

The PDNP is one of the most accessible national parks in the world. Over 15 million people live within 40 miles or an hour’s drive away. Millions of vehicles travel in and around the area every year.

The A628 Woodhead Pass is the only trunk road to cross the PDNP and is the responsibility of Highways England. ‘A’ roads that run through the park, crossing several local authority boundaries, include the A53, A537 and A57, which come under the jurisdiction of the relevant local highway authority in each area.

Smaller villages are predominately served by ‘B’ roads, however Bakewell, the only town within the PDNP, is served by the A6 and A619.

Rail and bus services provide access to much of the PDNP. Neighbouring cities and major towns include Sheffield, Manchester, Derby, Chesterfield and Macclesfield. All have regular intercity rail services from destinations across the country. Only the Hope Valley Line between Manchester and Sheffield actually passes through the PDNP, stopping at stations in Grindleford, Hathersage, Bamford, Hope and Edale. Regular bus links connect towns lying beyond the boundary with towns lying within the PDNP itself.

How vulnerable are transport links into the PDNP?

Transport links into the PDNP have been rated ‘low’ on our vulnerability scale. This score is due to moderate sensitivity and exposure to climate change variables, coupled with a reasonable current condition, and high adaptive capacity.

Transport links in the PDNP are generally in good condition, but subject to some pressures including weather. Major routes are already susceptible to adverse weather with snowfall often leading to the closure of the high level routes. Increases in extreme weather conditions are therefore a key potential impact of climate change on the transport infrastructure.

However, research is now being carried out by organisations responsible for transport infrastructure to look at what measures can be undertaken to increase resilience to the potential impacts of climate change.

Current condition

Roads and rail in the PDNP have periodically been closed by flooding. Roads at higher altitude such as A57 Snake Pass, A628 Woodhead Pass, A537 Cat & Fiddle, A6024 Holme Moss, A53 Axe Edge are regularly closed by winter snow. During fine weather and on weekends the honeypot locations such as Bakewell see significant road congestion.

Erosion is having an impact on a number of roads. The A57 Snake Pass has a similar geology to the old Mam Tor road and has suffered a number of landslips over the last few years through drought, freeze-thaw and flood. The A54 and A619 have also seen undercutting erosion of retaining walls.

The cities surrounding the PDNP have intercity rail services. However only the Hope Valley Line between Manchester and Sheffield has a stopping service within the PDNP (currently operated by Northern Trains).

Three lines stop just outside the boundary: Derwent Valley Line from Derby to Matlock (East Midlands Railway), Manchester to Glossop (Northern Trains) and Manchester to Buxton (Northern Trains). From these towns bus services are available into the PDNP.

A fourth line from Manchester runs to Huddersfield (TransPennine Express), with stations at Greenfield and Marsden.

It is possible to access most parts of the PDNP by bus. While some services run daily or even hourly, there are others that are only run at weekends or peak holiday periods.

What are the potential impacts of climate change?

Overall potential impact rating

##Direct impacts of climate change Transport routes are susceptible to changes in the weather. Increased summer temperatures are likely to see tarmac melt and rails expand and buckle. Smaller roads may be particularly affected as they are built to lower specification than motorways and trunk roads, although they do carry lower levels of traffic. If road surfaces become brittle they may crack allowing water ingress, resulting in potholes and the rapid deterioration of the surface. This may lead to some routes being closed at peak times, delays and an increase in infrastructure maintenance costs. There may also be an increased risk of accidents. Hot weather can also affect mechanical and electrical systems affecting vehicles as well as road and infrastructure. These issues have the potential to have an impact on the PDNP economy and sustainability of businesses. Data Certainty: Very High

Storm events could see routes blocked by fallen trees and flooding from rivers or caused by heavy rainfall. Routes may be temporarily blocked or inaccessible (especially those in floodplains) and incur an increased cost of maintenance. Data Certainty: Moderate

Sedimentation or erosion

It is likely to be extreme winter and summer events that have the biggest impacts. There could be an increase in road, footpath and track erosion rates. Drier summers may lead to cracking of the ground which makes foundations of bridges susceptible to damage and subsidence. There may also be a rise in disruption to earthworks along transport and flood defence corridors, including: shrink and swell around pipework; landslips; undercutting; and bridge scour. Underlying geology makes some areas more likely to experience land slips as in the case of the old Mam Tor road. A period of drought and severe winters led to the final collapse and abandonment of the road. Data Certainty: High

Roads, railways, paths, tracks and trails are sensitive to erosion by wind and rain. Any increase in frequency and severity of storms could also see higher river flows damaging road and rail bridges through debris impact and the erosion of foundations. Modern bridges have benefitted from improved design and better understanding of weather, but older masonry arch bridges remain vulnerable. The potential loss of bridges or key routes may mean they need to be rebuilt or replaced. Routes could be temporarily blocked or inaccessible and there may be increased cost of maintenance. This could impact the PDNP economy and sustainability of businesses. Data Certainty: High

Warmer winters could have a positive impact by reducing damage caused by freeze-thaw. Disruption related to cold, snow and ice could decrease and could bring a positive impact to the PDNP economy and sustainability of businesses. However if warmer winters are also wetter there could be increased issues with flooding and erosion, if water leads to the undercutting of retaining walls for example. Data Certainty: Moderate

Human behaviour change

Hotter, drier summers may see an increase in visitor numbers from cities. Paths, tracks and trails are sensitive to increased foot traffic and there may also be an increase in wildfire ignition sources. Any increase in traffic could see roads becoming congested. This may lead to increased maintenance costs of transport infrastructure and the loss of appeal of the PDNP as a place of tranquillity, with visitor hotspots becoming even busier. Data Certainty: High A rise in extreme weather could see increased public safety risks, maintenance and legal costs. Access to public rights of way may be restricted by flooding and storm damage or emergency repairs. Flood events often leave sediment on the road surface and this could have an impact. A study has found a link between extreme weather and a rise in accidents, particularly in single vehicle accidents, under heat stress conditions induced by extremely hot days and heat waves. Routes may be closed in some areas. Data Certainty: Moderate

Increased demand for climate change mitigation is likely to see an increase in electric vehicles and associated charging points as well as demand for low carbon transport such as cycling. Warmer weather may encourage more people to walk or cycle, delivering health benefits in addition to greenhouse gas reductions. Roadside areas are potentially sensitive to increased electric vehicle infrastructure which may impact the sense of tranquillity and escape. Data Certainty: Low

Invasive or other species interactions

Increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and nitrogen may see some plants grow more vigorously. Most roads, tracks, and railways already experience some level of vegetation growth, but may require an increase in maintenance. This may also be the case if growing seasons lengthen due to higher annual average temperatures. Some routes may become overgrown and difficult to use, and embankments may become unstable if species composition changes significantly. There may be an impact on the PDNP economy and sustainability of businesses. Data Certainty: Low

Other indirect climate change impacts

Fire risk during hotter, drier summers may increase if visitor numbers also rise especially at heather or grass moorland sites near to main routes. This could lead to damage to sensitive areas, wildlife and heritage assets, and increased costs and public safety risk. Routes may need to be closed pre-emptively. Road closures have already taken place due to large moorland fires (for example the 2018 Stalybridge fire) but are likely to have a very limited impact on overall transport into the PDNP. Data Certainty: Low

What is the adaptive capacity of transport links into the PDNP?

Overall adaptive capacity rating

There is a very diverse set of transport infrastructure to access the PDNP: five main railway lines, a good range of bus services, several A roads and many minor roads, public access to 500 square km of access land and 2,460 km of public rights of way. The A619/A623 Chesterfield to Barmoor Clough is a key freight route, whilst the A515 is the strategic route for aggregates. Although disruption will occur, the majority of the PDNP should remain accessible and in this way it has a very good adaptive capacity. Data Certainty: High

However, transport networks are by nature interlinked so climate related disruption affecting one can have knock-on effects on others. The overall level of risk facing the sector may be intensified by its interdependencies with other sectors (for example energy where potential interruptions to supply can disrupt rail and road networks and operations). Such potential impacts, in turn, increase risks for businesses. The design and maintenance of transport systems may also need to take gradual climatic changes into account. Some historic infrastructure may already be unable to cope with these changes. Most of the infrastructure should be resilient and able to recover from damage or disruption. Historic scheduled bridges may be more difficult or costly to repair or modify. Data Certainty: High

Responsibility for transport policy at Government level in the UK rests with the Department for Transport (DfT). Network Rail recognises climate change as an important factor in future planning and substantial research is underway to make the rail system more resilient to climate impacts, while Highways England has produced its own adaptation strategy. The DfT has provided local authorities with adaptation guidance on issues such as road surface maintenance. Under the Climate Change Act 2008, 31 transport organisations have produced reports setting out how climate change may impact their business and what actions they have identified to manage the risks. Data Certainty: High

Information and management skills needed to adapt infrastructure is well researched and tested and readily available and is already being assessed and implemented by several of the agencies above. Data Certainty: High

Due to the size and nature of the institutions responsible for maintaining UK transport network and the increasing recognition of the importance of climate change mitigation and adaptation, it is very likely that funding and investment will be available to maintain and adapt major transport infrastructure, including electrification into the 21st Century. Data Certainty: Low

Key adaptation recommendations for transport links into the PDNP:

Improve current condition to increase resilience The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations are aimed at improving the condition of the feature at present, therefore making it better able to withstand future changes to climate.

• Review and adapt vegetation management to keep routes open.
• Incentivise reduced demand for services through behaviour change and the use of more efficient technologies.
• If visitor numbers increase at easy to access locations, encourage visitors to use alternative transport such as bikes and public transport to maintain tranquillity of the area.
• Support changes such as enlarging drainage capacity for roads, railways and other routes to enable them to cope with increases in rainfall, and the implementation of speed limitations during times of extreme temperature.

Improve current condition to increase resilience: Increase structural diversity of the landscape to improve resilience to change

The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations focus on increasing the structural diversity of the landscape in which the feature is found. By doing so the condition of the feature, and therefore its resilience to climate change impacts, should be enhanced.

• Identify alternative and creative ways of delivering services, for example using green spaces to aid flood management.
• Natural Flood Management in the uplands of the PDNP through habitat restoration and woodland establishment is a key adaptation to reduce the impacts of flooding on transport infrastructure.