Lapwing

Overall vulnerability

Feature assessed:

• Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus)

Special qualities:

• Internationally important and locally distinctive wildlife and habitats

Feature description:

Lapwing are a medium sized wader found in the PDNP year round, with a resident population as well as some departing for the coast in winter and some arriving from northern Europe. They are easily recognisable by their looping, flapping flight, their distinctive ‘peewit’ call, and their black, white, and green plumage. They are most visible during their spring display flights, which are used to establish territory. They nest in scrapes, usually on farmland. Lapwing prefer varied habitat, with a short grass sward punctuated by taller grass stands, and wetter areas for feeding on soil invertebrates. Once widespread, lapwing are now a UK wide conservation concern.

How vulnerable are lapwing?

Lapwing in the PDNP have been rated ‘high’ on our vulnerability scale. This score is due to high sensitivity and exposure to climate change variables, a potentially improving current condition but an only moderate adaptive capacity.

Lapwing in the PDNP have suffered historical decline, and their recovery has been variable despite targeted management. Some of the greatest impacts on lapwing populations will be in effects on their invertebrate prey. Drier conditions and increased flooding are likely to decrease the abundance of soil invertebrates, reducing lapwing breeding success. As a bird mostly associated with farmland, human behaviour changes will be very important for future lapwing populations – but these are difficult to predict. Lapwing have some capacity to adapt to a climate change, and this would be helped by conservation initiatives on in-bye land.

Current condition:

Lapwing in the UK have generally shown a slight decline over the past 20 years, but in the PDNP their numbers may be increasing. The 2004 Moorland Breeding Bird Survey found an increase in breeding lapwing numbers across the PDNP. However, recent work in the South West Peak has shown declines in many areas of farmland despite targeted management. Lapwing can utilise a variety of habitats including heather moorland, but prefer in-bye land and rush pasture. It is thought the increase seen may be due to lapwing adapting to nest in heather moorland where the sward is kept short. However, this suggests that numbers could in fact be much higher if more preferred habitat in better condition were available.

Lapwing and other waders have historically been displaced by commercial afforestation in the uplands, although woodland establishment is now largely on gully sides, which are generally poor lapwing habitat. Generalist predators such as carrion crows and foxes are a significant problem for lapwing in the PDNP, especially during the nesting season. Very high predator densities are present in some areas, causing predator control measures to be instigated to protect lapwing and other ground nesting birds.

Pasture in the PDNP is often ‘improved’ for livestock, reducing its suitability as lapwing habitat. Drainage has removed many of the wet flushes vital to lapwing feeding, while pesticide input has reduced the abundance of their invertebrate prey. High fertiliser and slurry input and silage production has resulted in unsuitable homogenous swards for lapwing. Changes in the soil fauna including reductions in worms in fields regularly treated with slurry, and high stocking densities can cause severe disturbance, soil compaction and nest trampling. These factors all correlate negatively lapwing populations, meaning that much of in-bye land in the PDNP is less preferred lapwing habitat. Sheep stocking - dominant in many parts of the PDNP - is generally seen as suboptimal for lapwing populations due to their grazing behaviour.

What are the potential impacts of climate change?

Overall potential impact rating

Direct impacts of climate change

Wetter winters may drive phenological mismatches in lapwing. Lapwing have been found to lay earlier after wet winters, meaning that lapwing laying dates may advance. This could uncouple hatching dates from important annual cycles of invertebrate prey and agricultural practices. This could result in fewer available food resources during nesting, leading to reduced breeding success.

However, research in the Netherlands suggests that surface worms are a frequent prey item, and although these could be affected by drier conditions, they are still likely to be available even if lapwing laying advances.

If lapwing breeding time shifts sufficiently, it may fall outside of Natural England’s current ‘bird-breeding season’ dates, potentially increasing disturbance from management. Higher temperatures in spring can also advance nesting and cause earlier grass growth and therefore earlier mowing. However, advanced nesting dates may be sufficient to counteract this. Data Certainty: Moderate

Greater frequency and severity of extreme events such as floods and storms may increase chick mortality. These extreme events put stress on adult lapwing and reduce their condition, but can be deadly for the smaller chicks. It is thought that chick mortality is the most important factor in lapwing population change. An increase in chick mortality could therefore drive a population decline in PDNP lapwings. Data Certainty: Moderate

Warmer winters could benefit lapwing by increasing winter survival rates. Survival is positively correlated with higher winter temperatures, meaning that fewer would be lost each year leaving more available to breed. Increased annual average temperatures also appear to be driving an eastward shift in lapwing. It is unclear what consequence this will have for PDNP lapwing, but it is unlikely that lapwing will be lost as a result. Data Certainty: Moderate

Other indirect climate change impacts

Drier conditions during spring and summer would affect the invertebrate prey of lapwing. Drier ground causes a reduction in soil invertebrates and causes them to move deeper into the soil. This causes foraging to become more difficult, as ground penetration resistance is increased and invertebrates are less accessible. Although lapwing also feed on surface invertebrates, soil invertebrates are the major food resource, especially for chicks. Wet ground during the early breeding season is vital for chick survival, with the condition of lapwing chicks positively correlated with earthworm consumption. Larger chicks are not thought to be capable of survival on insects alone, needing earthworms and other prey to grow and survive. Chick survival will therefore likely be reduced to some extent, lowering lapwing numbers in the PDNP. Data Certainty: Very High

Increased winter flooding may also affect soil invertebrate populations. In previously unflooded grassland, it is known to reduce soil macroinvertebrate biomass. Soil invertebrates are slow to recolonise areas they have been lost from, making it unlikely that populations can recover before spring breeding. Reduced invertebrate prey availability reduces chick survival, meaning lapwing returning to these fields will have reduced breeding success. However, winter flood areas remaining during the breeding season can provide a source of aquatic invertebrate prey. Lapwing habitat may therefore be enriched by a mosaic of flooded and unflooded fields, but this is hard to predict. Data Certainty: High

Hotter, drier summers are likely to cause an increase in the frequency and severity of wildfires in the PDNP. This could affect lawing populations by removing nesting habitat and destroying nests. This would represent a full clutch loss for those birds affected, and reduce opportunities to re-nest, as previous nesting sites will no longer be suitable. Data Certainty: Low

Human behaviour change

Increased extent and creation of sea defences due to sea level rise is likely to affect lapwing at the coast. Managed realignment of the sea, as well as construction of hard barriers will remove some coastal habitat and cause remaining habitat to be squeezed, except where realignment involves creating new habitats suitable for lapwing. This will not affect the resident PDNP population, but for those birds that overwinter on the coast this could result in lowered winter survival rates and reduced breeding success upon their return to the PDNP. Data Certainty: Moderate

Future changes in land use will be significant in determining lapwing populations. As changing ground conditions and extreme weather events alter stocking levels, the suitability of pastureland for lapwing will change. Lapwing require a short sward, so abandonment of land is likely to be detrimental. As some land becomes unsuitable for grazing, stock numbers may increase on other land. This could increase nest trampling and soil compaction, reducing access to soil invertebrates. Soil compaction is a particular issue during flooding and waterlogging events, so increased surface water in some fields may further reduce their suitability as habitat. Data Certainty: High

As climate change progresses, mitigation methods will become more common, potentially damaging national lapwing populations. Afforestation for carbon storage or natural flood management can remove lapwing habitat and replace it with unsuitable woodland or scrub. Wind farms can also displace lapwing and remove suitable habitat. Within the PDNP, planning may protect lapwing from upland developments, but the coastal wintering population may be at risk from both wind farms and tidal barrages. Data Certainty: Low Hotter drier summers are likely to increase visitor numbers to the PDNP. This may increase disturbance and nest trampling of lapwing - not only by human footfall, but also by dogs off leads and occasionally vehicle traffic. Areas near to main paths and roads into and across the PDNP may have reductions or loss in populations of lapwing. Data Certainty: Low

Invasive or other species interactions

Increased average annual temperatures may increase populations of generalist predators by increasing their winter survival. High predator densities could be exacerbated, reaching critical densities in some areas. This would disadvantage lapwing and other ground nesting birds by increasing losses of both adults and chicks during the breeding season. Data Certainty: High

Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, along with raised annual average temperatures may cause an increase in vegetative growth rate. This may decrease suitability of some habitat for lapwing, as visibility is important in nesting location. A taller grass sward reduces visibility and could cause loss of lapwing from some areas or increase the risk of predation. Data Certainty: Moderate

Winter flooding may however have a beneficial effect. Flooding can act similarly to grazing, keeping sward height short and thereby increasing habitat suitability for lapwing, provided there is no negative affect on earthworm or other invertebrate populations. However, as this would mainly affect pastureland the human response to such change would be critical. Data Certainty: Moderate Nutrient changes or environmental contamination

Changing conditions in the PDNP may lead to intensification of agriculture to adapt to climate change effects, such as increased applications of fertiliser or pesticides. Pesticides reduce invertebrate populations directly, but fertiliser has also been shown to decrease insect body mass. Combined with increases in drainage reducing earthworm populations, this could lead to reductions in food resources, reducing lapwing condition and breeding success. Data Certainty: High

Sedimentation or erosion

Increased erosion on coastal habitats such as saltmarsh and mudflats may have negative effects on the coastal wintering lapwing population. Removal of material or excess deposition has the potential to damage soil invertebrate populations, reducing their availability. This may lead to reductions in wintering survival rates, as well as poorer condition of returning lapwing. Overall, breeding success of coastal wintering lapwing could be reduced. Data Certainty: Moderate

Increased winter rainfall and severity of summer storm events will likely lead to increased runoff in the PDNP. This is unlikely to be an issue for those lapwings nesting on well-vegetated pastureland, but heathland nesting birds may be more at risk. Upland soils are already relatively thin, allowing soil erosion to expose heather roots easily, causing root damage. This damage can change the vegetation mosaic, potentially reducing the suitability of heather moorland for lapwing nesting and foraging. Data Certainty: High

What is the adaptive capacity of lapwing?

Overall adaptive capacity rating

As a single-brooded ground nesting bird with specific nesting site requirements, it appears there are some barriers to adaptation in lapwing. However, lapwing have shown an ability to use a variety of habitats with suitable ground and sward conditions, and large variation in migration strategy affords populations some resilience to changing conditions. Lapwing have already shown some adaptation to climate change by advancing laying dates and shortening migration routes due to earlier warmer conditions. Data Certainty: Moderate

Lapwing habitat in the PDNP is generally quite fragmented. Although there are large areas of well-connected in-bye land, the specific requirements of lapwing and their general aversion to grassland ‘improvement’ means that much of this is not fully utilised. Lapwing dispersal is relatively low, with most nestlings returning to breed less than 10 km from their natal site. Their capacity to adapt is lessened by this site faithfulness. Some models predict lapwing climate space moving, leading populations to move north and west out of the PDNP by the late 21st century. However, other modelling shows the PDNP still within lapwing climatic range, leaving low confidence in this prediction. Data Certainty: Low

Some economic resource is available for adaptation in the PDNP. Many environmental land management schemes focus on farmland waders including lapwing. These schemes have been shown to be effective for farmland birds across Europe, or at worst not harmful. However, it is questionable whether these schemes will be effectively implemented. There are good opportunities but much uncertainty surrounding the UK’s exit from the Common Agricultural Policy. Data Certainty: Low

Some institutional support is available for lapwing in the PDNP. Projects such as the now defunct PDNPA Wader Recovery Project and the current South West Peak Partnership Working for Waders aim to protect farmland waders, but have had mixed success. The ability to instigate positive change on private land is wholly dependent on cooperation from landowners. Some lapwing habitat is within Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and Special Area of Conservation (SAC) designation, which has been shown to be beneficial. Lapwing are a red listed bird species in the UK. Data Certainty: Low

Management interventions to improve habitat suitability for lapwing and other farmland waders are reasonably well known. Rewetting, lowering stock densities, and reducing agrochemical inputs can all help lapwing populations recover. The issues arise in putting this knowledge into practice, and current agriculture subsidy systems can make this difficult. Data Certainty: Low

Key adaptation recommendations for lapwing:

Improve current condition to increase resilience

The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations are aimed at improving the condition of the feature at present, therefore making it better able to withstand future changes to climate.

• Reduce chemical inputs to fields to allow soil invertebrate populations to recover.
• Stronger grazing pressure in autumn and delayed lower pressure grazing in spring can generate the correct sward conditions, while minimising trampling and disturbance.
• Rush management should be planned with the needs of different species in mind, some suitable areas of long rushes should be left intact.
• Predator control could be a useful tool in high predator density areas, but may inadvertently increase predator populations and disrupt other species interactions. Research is needed to determine if a more natural system would be a better option for the future.
• Future increases in PDNP arable land use may become a resource for PDNP lapwing populations. In this scenario, management of this land should be sensitive to this species
• Encourage further uptake of environmental land management schemes by farmers within the PDNP.

Improve current condition to increase resilience: Targeted conservation efforts for important sites and at risk areas

The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations are conservation measures aimed at those sites that will have the biggest impact for this feature – either because they are particularly important for the feature or because they are most at risk from climate change.

• Wetland restoration should be a priority; both upland rewetting and lowland drain blocking will help.

Improve current condition to increase resilience: Increase structural diversity to improve resilience at a landscape scale

The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations focus on increasing the structural diversity of the area or habitat in which the feature is found. This can help to offset the effects of climate change on the feature, as well as to allow it to be in a better position to recover from future climate changes.

• Heterogeneity in surface water conditions is beneficial for lapwing chick survival. Some shallow wet features should be maintained throughout the breeding season. Generally wetter conditions are also beneficial.