Snipe

Overall vulnerability

Feature assessed:

• Snipe (Gallinago gallinago)

Special qualities:

• Internationally important and locally distinctive wildlife and habitats

Feature description:

The snipe is a small streaked brown wader found year round in the PDNP. Some breed here during the spring and summer, and more migrate in from further north during the winter. It is recognised by its long straight bill, which it uses to probe the ground for invertebrates. It is easiest to spot on spring mornings, when males perform their characteristic ‘drumming’, flying up high and using their tail feathers to produce a loud throbbing call. Known as a farmland wader, snipe can often be found on in-bye land as well as open moor and wetter areas across the PDNP. Snipe are an amber listed species, and a priority species for the PDNP due to their national decline.

How vulnerable are snipe?

Snipe in the PDNP have been rated ‘high’ on our vulnerability scale. This score is due to high sensitivity and exposure to climate change variables, but with a recovering current condition and a moderate adaptive capacity.

Snipe populations in the PDNP appear to be increasing and recovering from historical losses. Changes in ground conditions will likely have the biggest impact on snipe populations: both dry and waterlogged conditions will restrict access to their invertebrate prey. These effects will be particularly important during nesting season. Snipe in the PDNP mainly breed in very specific habitat, but have the potential to adapt to changing conditions. Money available through environmental land management schemes, as well as support from conservation organisations will assist greatly with snipe adaptive capacity.

Current condition:

Snipe have undergone historic decline in the UK, but numbers have recovered more recently, with a 32% national increase since 1995. In the PDNP, snipe appear to be faring better than the national average with significant increase since 1990 However, these increases are from a very low population base, and survey results vary. Snipe are difficult to detect during the daytime due to their reclusive nature, and so are often under-recorded.

Land use changes have been the leading factor in historic population reductions, and continue to have an impact on their recovery. Drainage disadvantages snipe by removing the wet flushes used for feeding and nesting. Agricultural ‘improvement’ of grassland also has a negative effect, as snipe require a heterogeneous grass sward, generally short but with taller areas for cover and nesting. As ground nesting birds, snipe are particularly sensitive to trampling. A grazing pressure of 2.5 cows per hectare accounts for the trampling of around 60% of nests. Heavy stocking also causes soil compaction, reducing food availability by making soil probing more difficult. High populations of generalist predators such as foxes and carrion crows on farmland can also decrease breeding success.

What are the potential impacts of climate change?

Overall potential impact rating

Direct impacts of climate change

Hotter drier summers, especially drought periods, will cause drying out of topsoil in the PDNP. This causes invertebrate prey to move downwards, as well as hardening the ground to make probing more difficult. This reduced food availability will not only have an effect on snipe survival, but also breeding success. Their nesting season ends when soil penetration resistance rises above a threshold, meaning that earlier dry conditions in summer may restrict snipe nesting dates and allow fewer chances for re-nesting after clutch failure. An increase in extreme summer storms will only enhance this effect by increasing soil compaction by livestock trampling. Data Certainty: High

Increased flood events are also likely to reduce snipe numbers. Earthworm abundance is reduced during flooding due to ground compaction and waterlogging, meaning their main prey is less available. Spring flooding also delays nesting dates, meaning fewer successful broods and fewer re-nesting opportunities. Data Certainty: High

Invasive or other species interactions

Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide along with nitrogen deposition due to increased winter rainfall and summer storm events, combined with a longer growing season due to increased average annual temperatures, may act to increase the growth rate of grasses. This is likely to increase the sward height in grasslands, reducing their suitability as snipe habitat. A taller sward would cause snipe greater difficulty in moving and feeding, and reduce their ability to spot approaching danger. Chicks will also be in danger of becoming soaked and unable to dry out in the wetter microclimate of the tall sward understory. Alternatively, increased stocking could be brought in to control and make use of the greater grass growth. This would increase soil compaction and trampling. Data Certainty: Moderate

Increased annual average temperatures may lead to an increase in the numbers of generalist predators such as foxes and carrion crows. This could increase nest predation pressure on snipe, reducing breeding success. Studies show that some nest predation is not significantly harmful to snipe populations, but once a threshold has been passed, it can have severe effects. Therefore, as some areas pass the critical threshold for predator density snipe could decline suddenly. Data Certainty: Low

Human behaviour change

Hotter drier summers may attract more visitors to the PDNP. This has the potential to increase disturbance of nesting birds, especially by those visitors with dogs. Nest trampling may also increase, but as snipe nest away from paths this is unlikely to be a large effect. As a result, snipe may be pushed out of some popular sites. As snipe are faithful to a single site, relocation may be difficult for those birds displaced. Data Certainty: Low

Drier summer conditions and an increase in drought may act to change land use in the PDNP. Drier sites could become unsuitable for livestock during the summer months, increasing the pressure on the wetter sites that are preferred by snipe. This would lead to increased disturbance and nest trampling, decreasing breeding success. Data Certainty: Low

As climate change advances, human mitigation efforts will also increase. In the PDNP this may take the form of moorland and bog rewetting for carbon sequestration. An increase in floods associated with greater winter rainfall and more frequent summer storms may also promote natural flood management, such as upland drainage blocking. This would create new habitat and increase the suitability of some existing habitat as new wet flushes are created and vegetation heterogeneity increases. Snipe could then increase in abundance and spread into the new habitat, albeit slowly. Data Certainty: Low

Nutrient changes or environmental contamination

Increased winter rainfall and severity of summer storms may lead to increased runoff from agricultural land, washing greater levels of agrochemicals into snipe habitat. Fertilisers could facilitate an unsuitable sward height and pesticides could reduce abundance of invertebrate prey. Taken together, this would reduce the suitability of some snipe habitat, and so reduce snipe fitness and breeding success. Data Certainty: Low

Sedimentation or erosion

An increase in the frequency and severity of summer storms may increase soil erosion, especially on dry soils after drought. This erosion could affect the soil invertebrate community, reducing abundance or changing the species assemblage to favour those less preferred by snipe. Sedimentation in the wet flushes that snipe prefer could also negatively affect the soil invertebrate community. Data Certainty: Low

Other indirect climate change impacts

Hotter drier summers in the PDNP are likely to increase the frequency and intensity of wildfire. As ground nesting birds, snipe are particularly vulnerable to habitat and nest loss. An increase in wildfire would therefore reduce breeding success by increasing nest failure as well as reduce snipe populations by destroying habitat. This would mostly affect birds nesting on upland moorland, as in-bye land and rush pasture are unlikely to be affected by wildfire. Data Certainty: Low

Warmer winter conditions may have a positive effect on snipe by reducing the amount of time ground is frozen. Frozen ground prevents snipe from feeding, as penetration is more difficult and soil invertebrates such as earthworms move deeper into the soil. Ground frozen less often, and over a smaller area, would mean snipe are able to feed more easily and in more sites. Wintering survival of resident birds would be increased, and a greater number of migrant birds could utilise the PDNP. Data Certainty: Moderate

What is the adaptive capacity of snipe?

Overall adaptive capacity rating

Snipe habitat has variable connectivity. Although snipe can nest in multiple habitat types including moorland, in-bye land, and rush pasture, even within these habitats they are restricted to specific areas with suitable wetness and vegetation heterogeneity. Moorland is well connected across the PDNP, but much of it is poor as snipe habitat. In-bye land has suitable habitat but is again restricted, and connectivity is generally broken by large areas of drier pastureland. As snipe are faithful to a single site, even when suitable habitat is available colonisation and expansion are slow processes. Data Certainty: Moderate

Snipe are slow to recover generally, but are able to tolerate a range of conditions. Because snipe pairs are site faithful, range expansion is slow, and once habitat is lost pairs find re-nesting difficult. A recovering population nationally means that the PDNP population can be bolstered by populations elsewhere. Winter migrants could also provide some birds to the PDNP population. Although the PDNP population breeds almost exclusively in lowland soft rush stands, populations in Iceland and Scotland breed on dry heath and grassland and so there is some potential for snipe habits to adapt, especially if these habitats become wetter. A large part of snipe diet is earthworms and fly larvae, and young are fed almost exclusively on earthworms. However, snipe will eat a variety of invertebrates, including some non-soil invertebrates and occasionally vegetative matter – meaning they do have some capacity to adapt to changing food sources. Data Certainty: Moderate

Some money is available for snipe conservation in the PDNP, increasing their adaptive capacity. Many environmental land management schemes focus on farmland waders including snipe. These schemes have been shown to be effective for farmland birds across Europe, or at worst not harmful. Snipe benefit from these schemes more than some other species. However, it is questionable whether these schemes are effectively implemented, and it is very difficult to predict how they will change in the future. Data Certainty: Low

Institutional support is available for snipe and will be important in their conservation. Projects across the PDNP such as the now defunct PDNPA Wader Recovery Project and the current South West Peak Partnership project Working for Waders aim to protect farmland waders, but have had mixed success. Much snipe habitat will lie within Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) designation, although they are not specifically mentioned in the Dark Peak SSSI citation. Snipe are listed as Locally Important by the PDNPA and are an Amber List species nationally. Data Certainty: Very High

Management for snipe populations is relatively well tested. Snipe are quite well studied, although not quite as much as other farmland waders such as curlew and lapwing. Management for snipe has been a PDNP priority for over 10 years, and so management practices have had time for refinement. Predator fencing and nest protection have shown mixed success, with large gains in some areas but declines across others, indicating some gaps in knowledge. Data Certainty: Very High

Key adaptation recommendations for snipe:

Improve current condition to increase resilience

The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations are aimed at improving the condition of the feature at present, therefore making it better able to withstand future changes to climate.

• Remove drains in pastureland to promote wet flushes and rush areas – by creating better habitat for snipe their current status can be improved and so they are likely to be more resilient to change.
• Rush management should be planned with the needs of different species in mind, some suitable areas of long rushes should be left intact.
• Cease the ploughing of fields and reduce chemical inputs to improve soil invertebrate populations and diversity – giving snipe a more abundant and wider choice of food.
• Predator control could be a useful tool in high predator density areas, but may inadvertently increase predator populations and disrupt other species interactions. Research is needed to determine if a more natural system would be a better option for the future.
• Encourage further uptake of environmental land management schemes by farmers within the PDNP.

Improve current condition to increase resilience: Targeted conservation efforts for important sites and at risk areas

The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations are conservation measures aimed at those sites that will have the biggest impact for this feature – either because they are particularly important for the feature or because they are most at risk from climate change.

• Stocking levels should be kept low to reduce nest trampling and disturbance.

Improve current condition to increase resilience: Increase structural diversity to improve resilience at a landscape scale

The current condition of a feature is an important factor alongside its sensitivity and exposure, in determining its vulnerability to climate change. These recommendations focus on increasing the structural diversity of the area or habitat in which the feature is found. This can help to offset the effects of climate change on the feature, as well as to allow it to be in a better position to recover from future climate changes.

• Ditches and other varied surface topography can provide damp areas for snipe to feed in dry periods, so these should be considered in management and development plans.

Adapt land use for future conditions

These recommendations are adaptations to the way in which people use the land. Flexibility in land management - reacting to or pre-empting changes caused by the future climate - should afford this feature a better chance of persisting.

• Prolonging high soil moisture into summer will extend the nesting season and increase snipe breeding success. Landscape scale management plans should look at interventions which can reduce the drying effect of hotter, drier summers.